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Introduction to Linguistics EssayWhat is meant by the field of philology? This introductory chapter concerns some dimensions of philology, which give us a general cerebration of what philology is, including the history of lingual, grammar, and other disciplines of philology sphere. What does grammar consist of and what ar the relationship mingled with unmatched and a nonher? How many lyric poems do kind-hearted beings eat the efficacy to acquire? What other studies ar made in recent centuries? Each of these aspects ar clearly described, and other chapters will go into further details. While in this chapter we will provide some little detailed data on the various aspects of philology mentioned so far. 1. 1 Defining Linguistics thither is nought that burn down be said by mathematical symbols and relations which put up non also be said by delivery. The converse, however, is false. Much that place be and is said by words stopnot successfully be put into equations, because it is nonsense. C. Truesdell Linguistics is a involve to describe and explain the gracious faculty of address. There is no doubt that philology has changed by means of human development. 1. 1. 1 History of linguisticsSee more how to write an introductionThe history of linguistics can be divided into trio periods antiquity, middle ages and modern linguistics. 1. 1. 1. 1 Antiquity Dating back to earlier period of linguistics, linguistics is often associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. Ancient Indians made a big contribution to linguistics development. Similarly, ancient Chinese played a key role in improving linguistics development. Around the same season as the Indian developed, ancient Greek philosophers were also debating the nature and origins of wrangle.During this period, syntax and the use of particles developed fast. In increment, scholars proposed that word meanings are derived from sentential usage. 1. 1. 1. 2 Middle Ages In Middle East, in name of expanding Islam in 8th century, a large number of the great unwashed hold Arabic. Because of this, the earliest grammar came to being gradually. At the same time, Siba instructionh, a famous scholar, wrote a book to distinguish phonetics from phonology. In the 13th century, Europeans introduced the notion of universal grammar. 1. 1. 1. 3 Modern Linguistics Modern linguistics beginning can date back to the late 18th century.With time passing by, the train of linguistics contains increase contents. Mean spell, it is utilise in other fields, computer, e. g. , has set about to be called computational linguistics. The depicted object of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrower sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories of lecture teaching and information, especially the teaching of foreign and gage wording. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.However, linguistics is unless a part of a much larger academic discipline, semiotics. It is the scientific study of language. It studies not erect one single language of any one society, just similar Chinese or French, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not return to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operated as systems of intercourse in their societies or communities. 1. 1. 2 An Interesting Comparison.Linguistics is a broad field to study, therefore, a linguist sometimes is only if up to(p) to deal with one aspect of language at a time, and thus various branches arise phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, applied linguistics, pragmatic s, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology and so on. Suppose that the study of linguistics can be considered to be a computer, so linguistics is equal to the CPU, which supports all the other parts. Moreover, sound card would stand for phonetics and phonology, and then morphology and semantics are like the memory of the computer.Whats more, syntax plays as an important role to translate single words to a whole execration which is full of meaning, just like a graphics card, which uses picture to make up sense of the idea of memory stick. Finally, everything is ready, it s time to use computer and the same goes for language accomplishment. Very interestingly, the properties of computer are amazingly similar to human language. from www. iflytek. com/english/Research-Introduction%20to%20TTS. htm Above all, linguistics is concerned with the study of verbal language incidently speech and written language.Whats more, language is a system and there is a set of options of which one must be chosen depending on the purpose and context. (Marie E. John P. , 1991, p. 64). 1. 2 The broad study of language run-in is a highly complex system of communication, so it sometimes will be called a system of systems. It is used to construct, exchange, express, and record information and ideas. It performs these functions effectively because it is based upon systems that are understood by those using the language. In this chapter, foursome topics will be concerned.They are phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. In this section, some overall definitions and fundamental interactions among the four parts will be talked approximately. 1. 2. 1 Phonology In tramp to assist learners at the early stages of literacy, it is very important to understand the relationship mingled with sounds and letters. The sounds of speech are studied in phonetics and phonology. (Marie E. John P, 1991) 1. 2. 1. 1 Definitions of phonology and phonetics Phonology is the study of so und systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occurs in a language and the patterns wherein they fall.In other words, we study the abstract side of the sounds of language, a related but different subject that we call phonology (Peter, 2000). In short, it is about patterns and roots. On the other hand, it is more strict linguistics. Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. In common, speech sound is used everywhere, and it can be divided into three parts articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics.1. 2. 1. 2 The difference between phonology and phonetics It seems that phonology and phonetics are similar. That is why both of them make learners confused. In fact, they progress to great difference. Phonology pays attention to how speech sounds of a language pattern are put together according to co nstant rules. On the contrary, phonetics focuses mainly on description of how speech sounds are made. For instance, if someone says we should get our two lips close together and then push them open with a strong air, that means he or she is relevant to phonetics field.Another example is no words should begin with the ng/N/ sound, the sound only occurs at the end of words, and this concerns phonology area. Plenty of terms are used to describe different patterns of letters and sounds. Some of the common used terms are blend, digraph, schwa, syllable and phonics, which are widely and frequently applied. 1. 2. 2 Morphology Morphology has been regarded as a necessarily synchronic discipline. That means the rules focusing on the study of word coordinate instead of the development of words (Katamba, 1993, p.3).It is the basic element used in a language, and the concept of morphemes is one of the main aspects in the study of morphology (Yule, 2006, p. 66). Basically, it is the branch of li nguistics that studies the internal structure of words. In morphology, morphemes are the minimal units that have semantic meaning. It is the linguistic term for the most elemental units of grammatical form (Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams, 2006, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 1 The classification of morphemes Morphemes are composed of free and bound morphemes.Free morphemes are the morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, while bound morphemes are those that can not normally stand alone, but that can be attached to affixes (Yule, 2000, p. 75). Free morphemes contain lexical and functional morphemes. The initiative category, free morphemes, is the set of ordinary nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs which carry the content of the conveyed messages (Yule, 2000, p. 76), and most English words refer to this category. The functional morphemes consist largely of the functional words, including conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (Yule, 2000).Bound morphemes can also be divided in to two categories. They are derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes are those which make new words in the language and make words of a different grammatical category from the stem (Yule, 2000, p. 76), which means that it can change the meaning or the word class, whereas the inflectional morphemes are used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word (Yule, 2000, p. 77). 1. 2. 2. 2 The interaction with other aspects Morphology has interactions with phonology.The selection of the form that manifests given morpheme may be abnormal by the sounds that realize neighboring morphemes (Katamba, 1993). For example, prefixes and suffixes will normally affect the stress. Meanwhile, there is interaction between morphology and syntax. The form of words may be influenced by the syntactic construction in which the word is used (Katamba, 1993, p. 13). 1. 2. 3 Syntax So far in our study of language, we have made studies of phonetics, phonology and morphology. We have analyzed the structure of sounds and words. Therefore, we have been trim backd on the level of small units of language.After our analysis of words, we move to the consideration of larger structural units of language phrases and sentences. If we concentrate on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, we are studying what is technically known as the syntax of a language (Yule, 2000, p. 100). Syntax can be simply defined as the scientific study of sentence structure. According to Geoffrey (2005), syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences. The origin of this word is from Greek and it means a setting out together or arrangement (Yule, 2000).In the sentence The boy hits the door, we can discover that the words are related to each other in this order that it only has one meaning. If we change the order of the words The door hits the boy, the sentences meaning has totally changed and it is nonsense. The r eason is that the parts of the sentence are structurally related to each other, and this structure is reflected in the word order. In English, the word order is very necessary and important for the meaning of the sentence according to linguistic rules. In some languages, word order plays a less important role.The meaning of the sentence depends more on the form of the words themselves. In such cases, it is possible for sentences with totally different word order to have the same meaning. English used to be one of these languages. The following examples are taken from Old English Se cyning metech thone biscop-The king meets the bishop Thone biscop meteth se cyning-The king meets the bishop Although the words are arranged otherwise, they still mean the same. However, nowadays, the word order is very crucial for meaning. As a consequence, there is a great need for us to search syntax.Some important concepts are included in the study of syntax. 1. 2. 3. 1Complex and compound sentence Three sentence types are basic in the syntax. There are candid sentence, compound sentence and complex sentence. A simple sentence includes one word. However, in some situation, the simple sentence contains two words. A compound sentence contains at least two simple sentences. The sentences are linked with a conjunction. A Complex sentence composes of at least one main clause and one subordinate clause. 1. 2. 3. 2 Syntax Analysis The following example is provided for syntax analysis. The football team won the match decision year.S NP VP NP Det N Vt Det N Adv Ext(time) The football team won the match last year. The chart supra is called tree diagram. The letters above each indicate S = sentence, NP = noun phrase, VP = verb phrase, N = noun, V = verb, and so on. The syntacticians use this method to analyze the sentences. 1. 2. 3. 3 Basic Syntactic Structure In English, the structure of sentence depends heavily on word order. The four basic structures are listed as follows SNP + Vc + NP ( NPN, NP Det + N) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPVc + Adj) SNP + VP ( NPN, VPV) SNP + VP (NPN, VPVt + NP, NPDet + N) 1. 2. 3. 4 Basic Syntactic fat Process.There are four basic syntactic generative processes substitution, expansion, extension, transformation. Take the following sentence as an example to clarify these three concepts. consciousness is a policeman. Substitution Ken is a policeman. Tom is a policeman. Expansion Ken is a policeman. Ken is a bad policeman. Extension Ken is a policeman. Ken is a policeman at that time. Transformation Ken is a policeman. Is Ken a policeman? 1. 2. 4 Semantics Semantics, a subfield of linguistics, is the study of literal meaning. It is the recent addition to the English language. (Palmer, 1976, p. 1).According to Matthews (2007), during the early years the study of meaning focused on the lexicon alone. The scope of the study has expended since 1960s to include both semantics and pragmatics (analyzed in 1. 3), which come to the main fields of t he study of linguistic meaning(Katamba, 2000 Matthews, 1997). Semantic meaning is fixed and abstract. It can be understood by surface. However, it is de-contextualized. In another word, it is easily subverted by different gestures or intonations. Semnatics interacts with other aspects of linguistics. For example, when equivalent words are used, they can be understood, so it fits the rule of syntax.However, synonyms are used to describe something similar. In a sentence, a synonym can be substituted by another synonym. However, the meaning of synonyms speaker or writer determines or predicates have different degrees, which indicates the meaning is actually different (Alan, 2004). Thus, it is the interaction between syntax and semantics. As for the interaction with phonology, the term tonic syllable in phonology has three kinds of functions. The freshman one is the accentual function, which is to indicate the focus of the information. The second one is the attitudinal function that i s to indicate the speakers attitude.And the last one is grammatical function. If speakers use these functions, the same sentence will turn out to have various meanings. To conclude, in this section, linguistics is analyzed from the aspects of sounds, word structure, grammatical rules and meaning. Each of them is in charge of a plastered system. Thus linguistics can help people to communicate, to express, and to be understood. 1. 3 Other disciplines Apart from the core subparts of linguistics, which we have demonstrated before, for further reading, we introduce some other exciting aspects in the field of linguistics.There are a lot more to discover than those areas. 1. 3. 1 Sociolinguistics People may know something about you through the way you speak, for example, where you come from, where you spend most of your keep time, your social identity operator and so on. Two people growing up in the same geographical area, at the same time, may speak differently owing to a number of soc ial factors (Yule, 2000). Consequently, its very important to consider the social aspects of language. Its because speech is a form of social identity and is used, consciously or unconsciously (Yule, 2000).The study of the social aspect of language is known as sociolinguistic. Sociolinguistic is concerned with investigation of the relationship between language and society (Ronald, 2006, p. 13). It consists of cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. The first linguists who studied the social aspect of language are Indian and Japanese in the 1930s. Another person called Gauchat who came from Switzerland had a analysis of this in 1900s as well. However, these three people didnt receive much attention in the West. Until the late nineteenth century, the study of social aspects of language laid its foundation.Sociolinguistics gradually appeared in the 1960s in the West. Linguistics such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK first brought o ut this concept and explored it. (Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1) 1. 3. 2 Neurolinguistics Though the neural structures of most animal species are very distant from man, there are still resemblances between human and animal languages (Marler, 1981 Nottebohm, 1970), since neurons work in both. Human brain contains billions of neural cells, and so far, the exact number of those so-called neurons is still to be defined (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21).These itty-bitty tiny neurons have close link with the production of language. There can be innate or learnt vocal utterances. Oral language can be the innate property of the human brain, written language, however, is an invention of humankind.Dogs can bark, cats can miaow, and man can cry even after the removal of the midbrain, whereas parrots cannot imitate human sounds, and we cannot produce human language (Fabbro, 1999, p. 21). Therefore, the neural center of our brain is playing an irreplaceable role in the production of language. How does the main cerebral structure suffice the production of humanvocalizations?The study of neurolinguistic rely on the study of neurology and neurophysiology, and in these fields, all parts of the nervous system, each having different functions in generating language, are discovered. Theories are found based on lots of experiments concerning the removals of different sections of the brain. The destruction of different language areas destroys language distinguishingly. 1. 3. 3 Historical linguistics Historical linguistics definitely is not concerned with the history of linguistics, though historical linguistics has played an important role in the development of linguistics.It is the main kind of linguistics practiced in the nineteenth century (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). Historical linguistics concerns the investigation and description of how languages change or maintain their structure in the course of time. Language change can be easily proved by documents written in the same language but at differe nt periods of history. The differences of wording and structure of sentences can reflect the historical development of language. From series of datable documents, Lords Prayer widely recorded the history of mankind, and different versions help us analyze the language of each period (Bynon, 1978, p.7). Meanwhile we can also discover that certain structure rules are still used in rate of flow language. There are some constructs and rule that link the grammars of two different but related languages, which descend from a single original language, sharing a common ancestor. More accurately, historical linguistics deals with the kinds of changes, and the techniques and methods we have use to discover history, rather than the origin of words themselves (Campbell, 1998, p. 5). 1. 3. 4 Anthropological linguistics Anthropological linguistic is the study of relations between language and culture.It is related to human biology, cognition and language. It be enormouss to the field of linguistic anthropology, which is a branch of anthropology that studies human-beings through the language they use(Wikipedia, 2007, para. 1). Some Linguists who explore theanthropological linguistics consider these topics such as chimpanzee communication, pidgins and creoles, structural linguistics,total languages, whorf hypothesis, etc. 1. 3. 5 Pragmatics According to Kate (2000), pragmatics is one of the two main fields in the study of linguistic meaning.Pragmatics deals with natural language, while language is always used in context for an intended purpose. The listeners must try to grasp the meaning implied, enrich the ideas, and eventually make out the opinion that what the speakers meant when talking about a particular expression (Kate, 2000). According to Yule (1996), pragmatics studies the context in which the utterance is produced as well as the intention of language user. That means pragmatic meaning depends on context or situation. Without context, meanings can be vague and may b e misunderstood by people.Two of the branches are speech acts that cover requesting, commanding, questioning and informing, and politeness that shows the awareness of another persons face. In short, sociolinguistics is the analysis of interrelation of language and society. Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in language. Historical linguistics is the consideration of language change and how different languages are related to each other. Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and culture. There are some other disciplines in linguistics. Pragmatics deals with the speakers meaning.The five mentioned above are some main disciplines in linguistics. Different disciplines of linguistics enrich the content of linguistic. The study of linguistics tends to be more and more detailed and completed. 1. 4 Language Acquisition This chapter began with a general introduction to language study. It ends with a consideration of the acquisition of language, con taining first, second and foreign language, which is affected by the relationship between instructor and learner. Some experienced educators advise that it is only through learning to speak a language that you can fully analyze it (Everett 2001).Acquisition is described as occurring in spontaneous language contexts (Krashen, 1982), is subconscious, and leads to conversational fluency. 1. 4. 1 First language acquisition For a child, learning first language is automatic, not after starting school, not in specific circumstance and not by great efforts (Yule, 2006). It requires only basic physical capability of sending and receiving sounds directly or indirectly, and interaction with others using this language. Children are brought up in particular environments, being affected by different surroundings, especially by those people whom they spend most of their time interacting with.Infants start express themselves through some simple utterance, such as some vowel-like sounds. Children g ain change magnitude abilities at different development stages, from producing single-unit utterance to producing speech by communicating through expressions (Yule, 2006), since they are able to understand what others said. This a big step forward, like quitting toddling and being capable of walking steadily, forwards, or backwards. As children are being increasingly exposed to communication and interaction, their language skills are developing rapidly because of the expansion of vocabulary.They are never forced to speak first language and seldom be corrected by others, but they correct themselves through interactions every day. Then children learn to use verbs in different sentences, and how to use different words to form a sentence (Yule, 2006). They gradually learn to ask questions correctly and how to use the word no in their speeches to express negative meanings. The last stage of first language acquisition is the ability of making meaningful sentence (Yule, 2006). There is ma ssive variation in the rate at which features of ones first language are acquired.1. 4. 2 second language acquisitionBeing able to speak first language is one of the basic skills of second language acquisition. Except for the minority of people who are bilingual speakers, most of the learners have no access to a second language until our late childhood.Actually most of the Chinese learners are now learning English as a foreign language, because it is immediately back to Chinese speaking time out of the classroom. But later on they may have the chance of learning it as a foreign language in a native speaking environment, during immersion semesters, when they will acquire this second language in circumstances similar to those of Chinese acquisition.There are obviously differences in foreign language achievement, sometimes related to differences in aptitude (Carroll, 1982), sometimes to affective factors (Gardner Lambert, 1972), sometimes to learner strategies (Naiman, Frohlicn, Ster n Tedesco, 1978), sometimes to environmental factors such as opportunities for language use or instructional conditions (Long, 1982), and sometimes simply to time (Carroll, 1975). Human beings have the ability to learn more than one language all through ones live.Farwell (1963) (cited in Taylor, 1976) reports that a British explorer in the 19th century claimed to have spoken more than 40 languages and dialects. Usually, however, after the age of 10, the acquisition of second language is very different from the way one acquired his first language, which is relatively slower and cannot achieve native-like proficiency. 1. 4. 3 Educational factors Most of us begin learning second language in teenage years, spending only few hours on it every day and for most of the daily activities we use our mother tongue.Accordingly, we will encounter lots of difficulties in learning second language without enough exposure to it. Therefore, the largely distinguished part of acquiring first and second language should be language teachers. In order to learn a second language, we must learn from a teacher, or at least follow their guidance. The classroom is a very powerful instrument of instruction and it can control language learning in a very direct way (Richard, T. Roger,H. ). As language teachers, we should focus on students requirements and follow learner-centered approaches.We should impart cognition in a more practical way so the students can receive easily. Keep the class disciplined and orderly so that students can learn most effectively from the lessons. There are often the situations that the students seldom volunteer answers, and the teacher sometimes has to call on someone and wait for a long time before a response is forthcoming. Why not try breaking away from typical Hong Kong classroom practices in class? Like, students do not have to stand up to greet teachers, and they do not have to raise their hands or stand up when they answer questions.In a relaxed classroom atmosphere, students will feel free to interact. They will not fall silent when the teacher enters the room, then stand up and chant a choral greeting. If the pupils are put in this position in the classroom, they can be more effectively kept in their place in social life. During the class, we teachers should never say like this I am your teacher. By the authority vested in me I have the right to ask you to behave in a certain way, whether you like it or not. And you, in your role have the obligation to obey (Widdowson, H. G. ).Whereas, we should say that in another way Do this because I am the teacher and I know whats best for you, but not Do this because I am telling you and I am the teacher. This difference has the advantage of largely increasing participation in the use and practice of language. 1. 4. 4 Summary Approaches to the acquisition of language account for different backgrounds of learns first language, and different conditions of exposure. In acquiring language, learn ers often go through transitional stages of development, which is at distinguished rates. References Cruse, A. (2004).Meaning in language an introduction to semantics and pragmatics. Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press. Bynon, T. (1983). Historical Linguistics. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Campbell, L. (1998). Historical Linguistics-An Introduction. Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press. Dechert, H. W. (1990). Current trends in European second language. Great Britain WBC Print, Bristol. Fabbro, F. (1999). The Neurolinguistics of Bilingualism. Psychology Press Ltd. Fromkin, V. , Rodman, R. , Hyams, N. (2006). An introduction to language (8th ed. ). Boston, MA Heinle Heinle. Palmer, F. R.(1976). Semantics a new outline. Cambridge New York Cambridge University Press. Geoffrey, F. (2005). Key Concepts In Language And Linguistics. the States Palgrave Macmillan. Kate, K. (2000). Semantics. Basingstoke, England, Macmillan. Katamba, F. (2006). Morphology. Basingstoke Macm illan Press. Marie E. John P. (1991). Language and Learning. Melbourne Oxford University Press O Mally, J. M. , Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Matthews, P. H. (1997). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford. University Press, USA.Peter, R. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press. Ronald, W. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA Blackwell Publishing. Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Wikepedia Sociolinguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sociolinguistics Wikepedia Anthropological linguistics (n. d. ). Retrieved 30 October 2007 from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed. ). Cambridge, New York Cambridge University Press.