Impact of Exile on the Frankfurt School’s Theory

Impact of Exile on the Frankfurt School’s Theory GERMAN JEWS: INTELLIGETNSIA IN EXILE The atrocities of the Second World War (WWII) drove many of continental Europe’s Jewish intellectual elite to the United States and Great Britain. The Axis persecution not only targeted ethnic groups, but also persecuted an array of intellectuals and political thinkers. Among these was the political and philosophical institution known as The Frankfurt School (TFS). Some of its most influential members included Austrian-born art historian Ernst Gombrich (1909-2001), Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979), Theodor Adorno (1903-1969), Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) and Walter Benjamin (1892-1940), all of whom were at one point influenced by both political and intellectual persecution. Their European experience was affected by their Jewish identities as well as their respective theories of aesthetics and their affinity for a reformed system of Marxist thought. Unfortunately for the noted thinkers, their alienating experiences in exile did not stop after leaving Europe. As a proponent of Marxism and aspects of Communist thought, TFS’ encounters with elements of America’s notorious Red Scare had profound effects on the development of its work. Despite the inherently American institution of Ford’s mass assembly and naturally Communist implications of the American working class’ ideals, the bourgeois-idealism of TFS found it could not escape questions of its motives and widespread suspicions perpetuated throughout the American political environment. Spurred on by the relentless political witch-hunts of the Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wisconsin), scholars of the Frankfurt school found themselves perpetually marginalized throughout their lives. While ostracized intellectually for espousing Communist theory and rhetoric, TFS scholars were not limited to political systems. Gombrich and others followed paths similar to aesthetic thinker Michel Foucault in arenas ranging from art and music to popular culture at large. The experiences of TFS thinkers differed in this respect, with some challenged directly upon their arrival to the US. Others found that while they may not have been singled out in McCarthyism’s irreconcilable political aggression, their experiences in exile shared common traits ranging from the nonchalant acceptance of existentialist thought to the mobilization of Marxist revolutionary rhetoric. Unable to settle in any intellectual sphere, the constant alienation of TFS scholars weighed heavily on their philosophical conclusions, arguably cementing the unique characteristics of its thought. The political unrest and unconscionable harassment TFS thinkers encountered played as big a role in the development of its thought as religion played in the formulaic structure of a priori philosophy vis-à  -vis Kant and Rawls. Without their experiences in exile and resettlement in America and Britain, it is argued that their indirect sponsorship of Marxist thought would never have taken form. The particularly noteworthy traits of TFS scholarship are the irrevocable feelings of nostalgia and longing and perhaps the inevitable rebellion of those who simply could not accept intellectual ostracizing. Whether rejected by Heidegger or pursued by McCarthy, TFS found itself constantly in defense of its positions, its scholars either accepting of the situation or flagrantly unapologetic in their stance. Through identification of each key scholar’s beliefs and comparing shared experiences in exile, revelations of the weight of exile on the establishment of TFS schools of thought are clarified as well as the extent to which each scholar may have based his respective epistemological conclusions on sen timent rather than idealism. The German-Jewish experience, after all, was unique among Communist experiences throughout Europe and the United States. On one hand, Communists were persecuted both in the United States and Europe. On the other, the Jewish experience in Europe, especially that of the bourgeois, added a personal degree to marginalization. Europe had no propensity of goodwill towards Jews, but the American predilection to personal liberty found little room for acceptance in regards to Communism, especially in the years after WWII and the gradual Soviet ascension to the status of superpower. THE EXPERIENCE OF GERMAN JEWS IN CONSTANT EXILE: A LOOK AT AMERICAN TFS SCHOLARS Herbert Marcuse A student of German philosopher Martin Heidegger, Marcuse found himself at odds with society from the natal stage of his academic career. Marcuse found himself at odds in the forming of his epistemological stance; Feenberg believes this struggle is the product of â€Å"his own past, his complicated relationship to the doctrine of his teacher, Heidegger†[1]. Academically blocked as a German Jew, Marcuse would later find opposition in his career as a proponent of Communism; the two traits were hardly welcomed in German academic circles in the years preceding the rise of the Nazis. Even Heidegger hampered Marcuse’s development, the notorious Nazi supporter blocking publication of his student’s thesis in the infamous purge of dissenting ideas. Where Marcuse was remembered for being â€Å"guru of the New Left, the darling of 1968,† Heidegger is most known for having â€Å"betrayed his calling by becoming a Nazi and recognizing Hitler as his Fuhrer, never renou ncing his error publicly even after WWII†[2]. Marcuse differed from Heidegger’s nationalist positions as well as from his mentor’s stance on technology and social evolution. Marcuse believed technology had a profound effect on society, which in turn became a part of modern technology â€Å"not only as the men who invent and attend to machinery but also as the social groups which direct its application and utilization†[3]. To an extent, Heidegger’s avoidance of technology in regards to social evolution had much to do with the classical revolutionary stance Marxism upheld. The radical changes implicated in technological advancement, especially in the development of the wholly-efficient industrial ideology of Henry Ford, presented several philosophic and social implications, none of which could be tolerated in a society in constant intellectual upheaval. While Heidegger’s writings exuded a sense of existential realism in regards to technology and what he perceived as the end of human aesthetics and reason, Marcuse accepted modernity as part of an the ongoing Enlightenment, deviating from a priori traditions and accepting, for example, that concepts such as essence â€Å"can neither be based on tradition and community standards nor speculatively derived in an a priori metaphysics†[4]. In regards to his Marxist contemporaries, one of Marcuse’s shared traits with his other TFS scholars was his attempt to â€Å"combine critique and modernism in a revolutionary perspective†[5]. Perhaps the source of nationalistic suspicion, the revolutionary undertones of Marxist philosophy earned Marcuse the enmity of Germans and Americans alike, the extent of which will be later examined. A utopian thinker, Marcuse conceived â€Å"of a redeemed technological rationality in a liberated society, much as Plato,† imagining â€Å"a reformed rhetoric that would serve good ends†[6]. While Heidegger and other German nationalists believed in a utopia, their idealism was served by future ethnic cleansing and a politically-derived eschewing of Soviet-style Communism. â€Å"Safely checked after the mid-1930s,† Heidegger’s suppressed utopian impulses were a form of supplication to a regime that would not stand for intellectual deviance; also affected by the bleak reality of exile and intellectual persecution, TFS scholars Adorno and Horkheimer in turn â€Å"seemed to have lost not hope but even the capacity to imagine a better future†[7]. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer Early in Adorno’s career, when he â€Å"started his study of philosophy in Frankfurt with Hans Cornelius, he was already complete outside the Neo-Kantian mainstream of the scholastic philosophy of that time that Cornelius himself represented†[8]. A priori epistemology was a staple of pre-war Germany for the ability to manipulate morals based on a code of law. Adorno’s anarchic themes and then-unconventional thinking added to his academic ostracism. In contrast, as the â€Å"son of an undertaker from Stuttgart, Horkheimer was no scholastic philosopher either, but he did stand closer to the traditional style of German philosophy than did Adorno†[9]. While a proponent of Marxism, Horkheimer often examined the nature of existing concepts rather than venturing into the realm of revolutionary action. In his â€Å"On the Problem of Truth,† Horkheimer wrote of the temporal nature of reality and truth, perhaps a reactionary piece to the propaganda and book-b urning espoused by the Nazis in 1938. Horkheimer placed a great deal of weight on the deviation of the individual from the perspective of the many, writing that â€Å"cognition never has more than limited validity† and that â€Å"every thing and every relation of things changes with time, and thus every judgment as to real situations must lose its truth with time†[10]. Perhaps slightly less existential than Adorno, Horkheimer did not fully discount the bleakness of the reality of his time. Though not outwardly optimistic, Horkheimer was taken aback by the negative light in which Adorno perceived the world around him. A lifelong friend and colleague of Max Horkheimer, Adorno â€Å"had, as Horkheimer once put it, a keen view of the existing world sharpened by hatred, and this coalesced well with the misanthropic inclinations of the Institute’s director who understood himself as its ‘dictator’†[11]. Welcomed almost instantly in to the TFS circle, Adorno was greatly affected by the persecution he encountered as a Jew and an intellectual. His negative views of the world and its people lead him to deviate in focus from the social institutions that would earn TFS infamy in America and Europe. Unlike his contemporary Horkheimer, Adorno was â€Å"not so much interested in social science and research as in music and aesthetic theory†[12]. Adorno’s negative view of the world, nationalist or not, had a profound effect on his writings and the development of his beliefs. His disdain of modernity and realism lead him to adopt surrealist views reminiscent of aestheticians such as Hume, not unlike fellow TFS scholar Walter Benjamin. Feenberg noted that: â€Å"From the point of view of an aesthetic modernism, Adorno made a sinister and radical critique of all non-aesthetic modernity. Here he was close to the French surrealists as was his friend Walter Benjamin. The aesthetic idea of freedom from all institutions of a repressive society was very different from a more scientific idea of freedom as controlling and planning this society and its economic anarchy, which was basically Marx’s idea†[13] Unlike Marcuse, who embraced technology fully as a manifestation of social evolution within the framework of the Enlightenment, Adorno acknowledged both the positive and negative potentials of a world philosophically and politically lead by technology. Both he and Horkheimer believed that technics â€Å"by itself can promote authoritarianism as well as liberty, scarcity as well as abundance, the extension as well as the abolition of toil†[14]. Though Marcuse shared several social views in common with Horkheimer and Adorno, he differed from the two in his methods of critiquing the Nazi ascension to power. Unlike Marcuse, Adorno believed technology and social evolution had as much to do with the pre-1938 German nationalistic purge of free thought as did the provincial thought espoused by the Nazi party. For instance, Adorno believed â€Å"National Socialism [to be] a striking example of the ways in which a highly rationalized and mechanized economy with the utmost efficiency in production can operate in the interest of totalitarian oppression and continued scarcity†; the Third Reich was what Adorno referred to as a form of technocracy, the â€Å"technical considerations of imperialistic efficiency and rationality [superseding] the traditional standards of profitability and general welfare†[15]. Despite the advances of technology and the social implications that should have set with society at large, the Nazis a nd their reign was sustained by the historically-familiar force of arms, propaganda, and ironically all the traits associated with Marxist society. In what was strikingly similar to Soviet-style Communism, the Nazis ascended to power on the coattails of â€Å"the intensification of labor, propaganda, the training of youths and workers, the organization of the governmental, industrial, and party bureaucracy—all of which constituted the daily implements of terror† and in doing so, following the lines of â€Å"greatest technological efficiency†[16]. Unlike Adorno and Horkheimer, â€Å"Marcuse followed a different trajectory,† believing â€Å"technology was to be reconstructed around a conception of the good in his terminology around life†[17]. The more pragmatic and academically optimistic of the two TFS colleagues, Horkheimer perceived the negative sociology of knowledge grasping Nazi Germany as a cyclical phenomenon, one that like its â€Å"existentialist counterparts, calls everything into question and criticizes nothing†[18]. Unlike Marcuse, whose philosophy held fewer checks and precautions on the evolution of society, Horkheimer held that â€Å"the growth of antagonisms† of their period was the product of â€Å"disproportionate development of human capacities,† as if to suggest the Nazi ascension was a matter of personality and not â€Å"of the anonymous machinery which does away with the individual†[19]. Horkheimer thus asserted that the negative state of the world leading to his and other German Jews’ experiences had more to do with the hasty elimination of the value of the individual, with the populace conned into fascism by belief in the good of the state over the good of the pe rson. He observed that â€Å"right and wrong are glossed over in like manner,† with â€Å"the average man abstracted from the concepts and assigned an ontological ‘narrow-mindedness’† reminiscent of pre-Enlightenment eras[20]. THE EXPERIENCE OF GERMAN JEWS IN EXILE: TFS SCHOLARS IN EUROPE Walter Benjamin and Ernst Gombrich Adorno believed Walter Benjamin’s â€Å"thinking constituted the antithesis of the existential concept of the person,† that Benjamin â€Å"seemed empirically, despite extreme individuation, hardly to have been a person at all, but rather an arena of movement in which a certain content forced its way, through him, into language†[21]. Benjamin was much more akin to Marcuse in his optimism for technology and its effect on society. Benjamin did not espouse the same existentialist negativity of Adorno and Horkheimer, his philosophy embodying the aspirations of a utopian dedicated to the transformation of society. While still revolutionary in the Marxist sense, Benjamin did not advocate as fully as Adorno the impetus of labor and its inherent connection to the human psyche. However, his focus on aesthetics paralleled his thinking along the lines of Adorno, which prompted an exchange of ideas among the two contemporaries. Where Marcuse focused on technology as a tool to revolutionize the proletariat in keeping with Marxist ideals, Benjamin focused more on art, media, and popular culture’s consumption of the latter. Benjamin was among the first to identify the impact of transforming aesthetics and their ability to change society. Where Benjamin saw a great chance â€Å"for a revolutionary transformation of art by the new technical mass media, Adorno and Horkheimer were much more skeptical,† focusing equally on the negative potential as well as the potential to contribute to the betterment of mankind[22]. Though an advocate of the individual and markedly more optimistic than Horkheimer (and Adorno), Benjamin’s philosophical perspective was one of bleak realism. Constantly pursued, Benjamin allegedly committed suicide while fleeing the Nazi regime of whom he was sharply critical. Never leaving Europe, Benjamin’s obstinate refusal to flee lead to his demise but ironically espoused his bleak outlook on life. Though he had th e means to do so, Benjamin remained in continental Europe at the end of his life, not following in the footsteps of the German Jewish intelligentsia who found refuge in America. Where Gombrich and Benjamin unfortunately differed most as European aestheticians was their end; Gombrich remained in the United Kingdom during the war as in the employ of German broadcast monitoring living to the age of 92. Benjamin, however, would never know acceptance or peace in his life, dying a manifestation of his perspective of man. Ironically, it was Horkheimer and Adorno who emphasized what they believed to be â€Å"the obvious power of the new media in fascist dictatorships† and â€Å"the manipulative potential to impose the will on the leaders to passive and authoritarian masses of people†[23]. Adorno and Horkheimer’s pessimism surpassed whatever bleak outlook Benjamin may have exuded, countering Benjamin’s emphatic support of mass media as equally malignant as beneficial to society. They believed, unlike Benjamin, that the propensity for immobilization of the individual was present â€Å"not only in fascist countries but also in democratic regimes like the USA and in totalitarian or authoritarian socialism such as the Soviet Union under Stalin†[24]. Benjamin most markedly departed from Horkheimer’s views in his take on subjectivity. He exuded a â€Å"refusal to speculate on the role of subjectivity in the critical process in large measure explicable as a reluctance to incorporate idealist philosophical baggage into an exploration of the metaphysical structure of truth, which, as he had been convinced from very early on, was objectively present and objectively discoverable in the phenomena themselves†[25]. Like Adorno and Marcuse, Benjamin’s perception was a marked departure from neo-Kantian phenomenology and a priori-based philosophy. Benjamin’s â€Å"unwillingness to regard contemplative subjectivity as a constitutive in the critical discovery of truth was a philosophical predilection he shared with peers† who â€Å"were engaged in critical receptions of Marx, Nietzsche, and Weber†[26]. Pensky notes that: â€Å"†¦the potential endlessness of the process of subjective speculation might close out for good the receptive capacity whereby the messianic moments of historical experience could disclose themselves in the medium of critical thinking. Subjectivity, which is the medium in which the act of critical redemption takes place, is also the realm of contemplation and poses risk of an abyssal, endless descent into the inner recesses of speculation as bad infinity†[27]. Like Benjamin and Adorno, Ernst Gombrich was an accomplished aesthetician. Quick to make note of the innately negative potential of art, Gombrich claimed in his article â€Å"Art and Propaganda† that the modern age’s â€Å"sinister technique which gradually converts human beings into something like mental robots† rendered art and propaganda sharing â€Å"at least one common frontier†[28]. The exploitation of art’s aesthetic appeal coincides with propaganda; for art and propaganda to be received successfully by the general public, Gombrich argued that sensationalism in one shape or form had to be communicated. Where art had to break boundaries and the norm set by the precedence of the imagination, propaganda had to break boundaries set by the precedence of accepted logic. Gombrich stated plainly that â€Å"aesthetics of bygone days could name rhetoric† as the realm where art and propaganda met[29]. Gombrich believed â€Å"persuasion through t he eye, pictorial propaganda, is far from holding a similar rank in theory, but in practice its possibilities have always been exploited†[30]. THE TFS INTELLECTUAL EXPERIENCE IN AMERICA DURING MCCARTHYISM â€Å"According to information compiled by the various national and international aid committees formed in 1933 to rescue German intellectuals, about 1,200 academics lost their jobs in Germany during that year. This number was to grow by the end of the 1930s to about 1,700, to which another 400 university faculty were added after the annexation of Austria. If the various other academic professionals, doctors, lawyers, and so on, as well as students suspended from the universities are included, the total number comes to about 7,500. If we add writers, artists, and other freelancers, we may safely assume that—not counting family members—about 12,000 intellectuals lost their jobs and were eliminated from Germany’s social and cultural life†[31]. Perhaps more ominous than the volume of intellectuals exiled from Germany was the indication made by the mass-exodus of field-specific academics. Krohn notes that no sooner was the so-called â€Å"Law to Restore the Professional Civil Service† of April 1933 passed than â€Å"over 16 percent of all university faculty were dismissed†[32]. These â€Å"dismissals,† as they were termed, reached new heights, culminating in the forced-departure of â€Å"more than one-quarter of all university teachers†; in retrospect, the loss of â€Å"university faculty through the end of 1938 has been assessed at 39 percent†[33]. The fact that nearly 80 percent of German philosophical intelligentsia was Jewish and estranged on two fronts—ethnicity and intellectual affiliation—only hastened the effective neutralization of dissent inside Nazi Germany. Unfortunately, however, the departure of the German Jews whose beliefs fell outside the auspices of American political favor comprised a majority. TFS scholars comprised a minority of intellectuals whose formerly high-profile status carried over to the United States. Ironically, those â€Å"who had first experienced Hitler’s wrath benefited from their privileged position†; â€Å"the academics he booted out in 1933 were extended assistance and hospitality almost at once by American and British institutions; hence their crossing was comparatively smooth†[34]. Intellectuals who later reached the shores of Britain and the United States well into the war, however, experienced a different welcoming. With Britain under constant attack and the main city centers such as London almost shut down in Nazi bombing campaigns, several lacked the institutional umbrella of academia to transition into their new lands. Without such protection, many such â€Å"intellectuals often supported themselves initially with menial jobs, working as gardeners and dishwashers or, if strong enough, as stevedores and mechanics†[35]. Finding themselves in a state of near-poverty, many intellectuals including professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and en gineers never resumed their academic pursuits. Most notably, the American academic environment at the end of WWII left many German intellectuals to find â€Å"that their specialties did not transport well†[36]. A common assumption in regards to intellectuals in McCarthy-era America is that all were persecuted in the â€Å"Red Scare† that ensued at the beginning of the 1950s. But those intellectuals who were fortunate enough to remain in their fields found themselves in a much more favorable position than those who were struggling to survive in the blue collar marketplace. In comparison to these â€Å"foiled scholars, the most abused academic rested on a flower bed of ease†; â€Å"these unfulfilled à ©migrà ©s remained present in the academics’ lives, as their friends, their relatives, the audiences for their lectures and publications†[37]. This is not to say, however, that the German-Jewish academics in 1950s America did not encounter tribulation in their assimilation to New World society. Contentions such as Marcuse’s support of the Marxist tenet emphasizing labor as â€Å"man’s means of realizing his essence† and an irrevocable aspect of â€Å"man’s nature† were only slightly more welcome in American intellectual circles as they were in pre-war Germany[38]. Suspected by many as agents provocateurs of the Soviet Union, German-Jewish intelligentsia were marginalized further after having fled a land inflamed by similar conditions. Tensions flared following the capture and execution of convicted Communists Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, whose 1953 executions were part and parcel of McCarthy’s fervent vigil for Communists of all sorts. Given Benjamin, Adorno, and Horkheimer’s fears about propaganda, McCarthy-era America was hardly a place to feel welcomed. The isolation felt in America by TFS after fleeing Nazi persecution contributed greatly to the molding of its philosophic rhetoric. Marcuse often wrote of â€Å"the horror of capitalism produced by the type of objectification it fostered,† finding glaring similarities in the death of individuality embodied in the American industrial working class as in the nationalist characteristics of Nazi Germany. Furthermore, TFS scholars were alarmed at the scant modicum of utopian values espoused by a competitive drive set on besting one’s fellow man. Marcuse and others agreed â€Å"with the analysis of alienated labor in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts, to which Horkheimer and Adorno rarely referred in their writings†; â€Å"un-alienated labor, Marcuse suggested, implied working with others, not against them†[39]. As capitalism p revented the Marxist ideal of solidarity, TFS scholars perceived it as one more cause against which revolutionary tactics were mandated. Such revolutionary overtones, as one might imagine, were demonized by intellectual circles advocating McCarthyism’s rhetoric. As a corollary, further existential rhetoric pervaded TFS philosophy, the impetus of the constant necessity of revolution alienating themselves from American society simultaneously lending to their own feelings of nostalgia and desire for a sense of belonging. Adorno was among the TFS scholars who never found a place among American academics. Estranged from non-Communist circles, he was among several who found themselves as perpetual intellectual refugees. Brunkhorst claims that â€Å"all in all America remained foreign to Adorno†; during his exile, â€Å"Adorno never gave up the hope of coming back to Europe and Germany†[40]. Like other TFS scholar, Adorno was acclimated to a certain â€Å"distinction† as was the norm among â€Å"the old European educated classes†[41]. America, however, was entering a point of mass industrialization, ironically paralleling pre-war Germany in its focus on the state and the relative muting of intelligentsia in the era. THE DEVELOPMENT OF KEY TFS THEORY Development of key TFS theory evolved through conversation and communication, which were â€Å"among the guiding mottos of contemporary thought†; Dallmayr questions, however, if TFS socio-political perspectives could be â€Å"integrated into a common conversational framework† in a manner â€Å"yielding transparent understanding of all points of view†[42]. It is just as likely that such idioms as Marcuse’s take on technology and Gombrich’s theories of propaganda and truth were formulated on the precepts of an â€Å"unbridgeable gulf† or the â€Å"incommensurability of linguistic and epistemic rules†[43]. TFS theory, Dallmayr contends, was shaped by contact with its a priori counterpart in the Freiburg Institute, comprised of Heidegger and Kantian colleagues. In measuring the extent of exile’s effect on TFS, it is of the utmost importance to examine TFS’ experiences in its indigenous setting, that is to say its experiences in Germany and Europe. According to Dallmayr, â€Å"nowhere are the dilemmas of communication and non-communication more glaringly apparent than in the context of recent German thought† as manifested between TFS and Freiburg; â€Å"to a large extent, contacts between the two schools of thought have been marked either by neglect or indifference or else by polemical hostility and an insistence on incommensurability, often coupled with hegemonial [sic] claims†[44]. It is, after all, equally as possible that as a proponent of revolutionary rhetoric that TFS’ existence was dependent on a measure of exile of the metaphoric type. To a large extent, TFS scholars’ conclusions were drawn within the framework of Marxism, whose fundamental precept is revolution on a large scale. When taken into the context of â€Å"moral indictment† as described by Dallmayr, the experience of TFS in Germany would put into perspective the exchange of ideas espoused by TFS in ex ile and in its natal setting of pre-war Germany. Given the tendency of Marxist ideology and the radicalization of its writings, perhaps even Benjamin’s bleak outlook on life could have been regarded as carrying with it the requisite novelty of individuality; how would any revolutionary school of thought conduct itself if it followed in the footsteps of convention? Adorno, after all, â€Å"maintained a relentless opposition to Heidegger’s work and lavished on it an unending stream of polemical venom, a practice aggravated by personal distance†; Heidegger, on the other hand, â€Å"remained aloof from the Frankfurt School and at one point confessed complete ignorance of Adorno’s writings†[45]. While the personal contingent of Heidegger’s latent support of the Nazi party cannot be dismissed, it also does not dismiss the tone with which Adorno and other TFS thinkers indicted their opposition and the contempt they held for some of their a priori, Kantian contemporaries. Sherratt examines the possibility of Adorno’s â€Å"Positive Dialectic,† in which she purports there is a â€Å"positive† solution to what Adorno and others â€Å"envisaged as the problems of subjectivity and knowledge in enlightenment†[46]. Sherratt examines Adorno’s aesthetic, extricating and examining from Adorno’s work on enlightenment that would have the potential for positive dialectic. Unlike many of his other works, Sherratt finds that following his exile from Germany, Adorno’s epistemological and aesthetic conclusions are indirectly and dialectically positive. She concludes that the â€Å"newer† dialectic was positive in contrast â€Å"with the ‘old’ dialectic, which is already shown as negative†[47]. If Sherratt’s conclusions are of any sch

Why should manager want it in their workforce

The concept of organisational commitment (OC) is not easy to describe. By studying the literature on OC it becomes apparent that there is little consensus as to the meaning of the term. As the area has grown and developed, researchers from various disciplines have ascribed their own meaning to the topic. This is one of the reasons why defining OC is difficult. One definition is â€Å"Giving all of yourself while at work† (Martin and Nicolls). This definition is not very specific nor is it precise. A second definition says that work commitment come into being â€Å"When a person, by making a side-bet, links extraneous interests with a consistent line of activity.† (Becker, 1960) This definition focuses mainly on activities and behaviour in OC. A third definition explains OC as â€Å"an attitude or an orientation towards the organisation which links or attaches the identity of the person to the organisation.† (Sheldon, 1971) The two last definitions differ from each other in their understanding of OC. The second focuses mainly on behaviour while the third is more based on attitude and identification. A good definition should cover the attitudinal-behavioural dichotomy and one definition that does that is Richard T Mowday et al's (1982) definition: This definition represents something more than the previous because it says that OC goes beyond mere passive loyalty to an organisation. It sees commitment to an organisation as an active relationship with the organisation such that individuals are willing to give something of themselves in order to contribute to the organisation's well being. Mowday's definition can be characterised by at least three factors:  · A strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation's goals and values  · A willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation and  · A strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation Mowday's definition also has some weaknesses. Firstly it is important to notice that this definition does not prelude the possibility that individuals will also be committed to other aspects of their environment. It simply asserts that regardless of these other possible commitments the organisationally committed individual will tend to exhibit the three characteristics identified. Secondly, the definition doesn't clarify the terms ‘identification with' and ‘involvement in'. It can be discussed whether this is a good definition since the terms may be understood as ambiguous. Although this is not an ideal definition of OC, it is a definition that gives a good understanding and explanation of what OC is. Furthermore, Staw (77) differentiates between 2 different types of OC. Attitudinal commitment: Refers to commitment rooted in an employee's identification with the particular value system upheld by the co, and a desire to continue working there. Behavioural commitment on the other hand, comes about through a consistent pattern of action by an employee over a period of time, and the way in which s/he tends to become bound by this behaviour and hence reluctant to change. The point made here is that attitudinal commitment should lead to behavioural commitment and behavioural to attitudinal. Understanding this, we will examine in part 3 possible ways managers in which look to initially generate OC. There are several possible reasons why managers should want work commitment in their workforce. Drennan suggest that most managers believe that with real commitment from staff the performance of their business could improve dramatically. Beside an increased performance the work will also be a better place to work. The empirical studies carried out on the topic of OC represent a rich collection of findings with respect to both the antecedents and the consequences of the construct. Here is a short explanation of five possible outcomes that has been studied. Few important correlations have emerged in studies, although the correlations are consistently in a predicted direction and often reached statistical significance. (Mowday et al., 1974; Porter, Crampon, & Smith, 1976; Steers, 1977a) Therefore we should expect commitment to influence the amount of effort an employee puts forth on the job and this efforts should have some influence on actual performance. Committed employees are desirous of remaining with the organisation. Highly significant, positive correlations have been found between increased tenure and increases commitment in Mowday 1974 and Steer 1977 studies. Theory would predict that highly committed employees would be more motivated to attend so they could facilitate organisational goal attainment. Modest support can be found in several studies like F.J. Smith, 1977; Steers, 1977a, but this support is not entirely consistent (Angle & Perry, 1981). When an employee's commitments lie outside the organisation (e.g. hobby, family), less internal pressure would be exerted on the employee to attend (Morgan & Herman, 1976). We could say that commitment may represent an influence on attendance motivation. In a study by Angle and Perry (1981), commitment was found to be strongly and inversely related to employee tardiness. The theory underlying the construct suggests that highly committed employees are likely to engage in behaviours consistent with their attitudes toward the organisation. Coming to work on time would certainly represent one such behaviour. The strongest or most predictable behavioural outcome of employee commitment should be reduced turnover, which are shown in five studies. (Angle & Perry, 1981, Hom et al., 1979; Koch & Steers, 1978; Mowday et al., 1979; Steers, 1977a) In a sixth study, a longitudinal design was used to track commitment levels over time among a sample of psychiatric technicians. (Porter et al., 1974) Again commitment was found to be significantly and inversely related to subsequent turnover. Using the model suggested by Mowday et al, we look at the development of OC in 3 stages. What should be clear here is the significance of the early part of the company's relationship with an employee in seeking OC. Here we refer in particular to recruitment and induction practices of the firm. Employee characteristics: Choose people whose values, beliefs, etc in some way fit with those of the firm. The role of this ‘fit' in securing attitudinal commitment is significant Employee Expectations: Make sure these correspond with the realities of the job Job Design: Increase scope leads to increased commitment. Important dimensions inc: variety, autonomy, feedback, significance, challenge. – Participation, group work, and interdependence of tasks leads to commitment thru greater involvement and also increased felt responsibility – Make work challenging: Will attract those individuals who value work and bring an attitude of achievement to the organisation. Management and structure: Integration and supportive/open management – Loosen tight supervision and give employees more discretion Reward System: Internal labour market Organisational characteristics: Co must be seen as protecting the workers' interests while offering employment stability. Socialising employees is also important here, altho little research has been done on either its implementation of its usefulness. Increasing focus on behavioural commitment 1. Employees' jobs more likely to inc those dimensions mentioned above in ‘Job design' 2. Higher extrinsic awards + increased value of investments made by employee 3. Workers generally more socialised in the co Note: A major factor in influencing OC which has been ignored deliberately is that of personal experiences and histories that employees bring with them from previous jobs, etc. as this is beyond the scope of management intervention. In this essay we have mainly argued that organisational commitment is good and we have explained why manager should want it in their workforce. It is also evident that having a strong committed workforce has its advantages. One thing we have not mentioned is the disadvantages of a committed workforce. Randall (1987) used the term â€Å"blind† commitment in describing a workforce that was too committed. If you are too committed it can lead employees to accept the status quo even if the ultimately means that the company loses its ability to innovate and adapt to change. Another possible drawback to commitment can be illustrated by the example of a mediocre employee who has been at for a particular org for some time and who would struggle to get another job elsewhere. In this case, we assume s/he would be committed to his/her job so as not to risk losing it. In this way, this paper, having shown that there are many reasons why managers may wish to secure OC and how it can be achieved, has also highlighted some potential drawbacks that managers should be aware of.

Community College Argument Essay - 885 Words

Save Money on Tuition Attending community college before completing your bachelor’s degree at a four-year institution can save you a sizable chunk of change. Tuition and fees at public community colleges average less than half of those at public four-year colleges and about one-tenth of those at private four-year colleges, according to the American Association of Community Colleges. â€Å"I think my student loan was at least half of what I would have paid otherwise,† O’Brien says. Save Money by Living at Home Room and board make up a significant percentage of college costs at four-year colleges. â€Å"Living at home also saved me a lot of money on living expenses †¦ that was an added benefit financially,† says O’Brien. Transferring won’t†¦show more content†¦Smaller Classes The class size is surprising to most students because the tuition is so reasonable. While classes arent as small as those of a leading private university, many have as few as twenty students. In a smaller class, professors have the opportunity to learn more about their students. Likewise, students will find their teachers more accessible and can get assistance when they need it. Qualified Professors Everybody starts somewhere. Some of your professors will be fresh out of a masters program, but many will be well-seasoned academics who carry an impressive resume. Community schools are just as flexible for the students as for the professors. Many accomplished instructors teach part-time at community schools to allow plenty of time to focus on their own pursuits and career goals. In fact, when I attended junior college I ran into one of the professors from the private university I had previously attended, and she was teaching a night class—case in point! Transitional Countless numbers of college freshman transfer out after their first year of studies. Many return, some dont. Unfortunately, many of these students felt displaced and found that their expectations were not met by the university they attended. Attending community school gives students the opportunity to earn college credit while taking the time to select the 4-year institution that is right for them. Because there is little financial investment, most studentsShow MoreRelatedThe Community College Model Works Just Fine1361 Words   |  6 Pageswhich he gave his opinion on Barack Obama’s recent proposal to make the first two years of community college free of charge. Dr. Michael A. MacDowell, retired president of Misericordia University and a writer for Citizen’s Voice, disagrees with Obama’s plan and makes this clear in his article s title, â€Å"The Community College Model Works Just Fine.† MacDowell’s biggest arguments is that the community college group is not the most effective group to offer free education. MacDowell successfully usesRead MoreCollege Is Not For Everyone1286 Words   |  6 Pagesthat most kids take after graduation; college, or should you chose your own path. You began to consider the cost, the effectiveness, and other problems associated with college which makes you start to reconsider if college is actually worth it. You have to decide whether to go to college, an alternative institute, or to get a job. Your dreams are big and you know the chances of achieving them are less if you do not receive a college degree. After all, a college degree is a life necessity, dependingRead MoreCommunity College : Is It A Waste Of Time?898 Words   |  4 Pages Is it beneficial to attend community college before attending a university or is it a waste of time? There is a huge debate on whether or not attending community college is worth the time, or if it is as wasteful as rumored. While some people argue that it is no t worth attending a community college before a university, I believe that it is beneficial. It helps students transition from high school to college life as well as encourage them to further their education. Grubb, W. Norton, and MarvinRead MoreStudent Loans And Student Debt1128 Words   |  5 PagesAs Young teenagers become adults and start College, one issue that doesn’t seem as a big deal at the moment for many students are student loans. Young college students who don’t have the money, don’t have enough scholarship money, or family who doesn’t have the money to pay, will apply for student loans each year. They amount the student receives can vary depending on the college and what the student has achieved academically. Though interest rates are low with subsidized being 4.29% and unsubsidizedRead MorePresident Obama s State Of The Union Address944 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the most highly debated proposals from President Barack Obama’s State of the Union address is a new government program that would cover the cost of community college. The â€Å"American College Promise† would provide free tuition to students who enroll in a community c ollege for at least half-time, maintain a 2.5 Grade Point Average (GPA), make steady progress towards completing an associate’s degree and cannot have an adjusted gross income of above two hundred thousand dollars. Obama has statedRead MoreThe Community College System : An Alternative Form Of Schooling1717 Words   |  7 PagesThe Community College system in America is an alternative form of schooling so the student can get out into the workforce quicker than a student could while attending a four-year university. Over the years, the junior college system has progressed to become more intimate within the communities they serve. Whether the student is an older person wanting to learn a new trade, or a young adult trying to figure out what their purpose is in life, the community college is a good place to start. One questionRead MoreFree Education Should Be Provided At Public Institutions874 Words   |  4 Pagescity colleges. â€Å"Belinda Rodriguez is a climate justice act ivist and organizer,† (Belina Rodriguez, n.d.). Rodriguez recently served as Training Director at United States Student Association. Because the source only focuses on economic issues and is closely monitored by various universities, I believe this would be a good source. Both authors participate in organizations that are trying to help make higher education more accessible. Cubberley, F. (2015). THE REALITY OF FREE COMMUNITY COLLEGE TUITIONRead MoreThe Postsecondary State Policy Network972 Words   |  4 Pagesfocus is supporting structured student pathways from connection to college through completion. The four pathways are connection, entry, progress and completion (2014). I agreed with this initiative and believe the network is well needed, and is committed to help states create legislative policies that recognize the need for institutional reform strategies. By doing so it helps institutions provide structured pathways through college for more students, while assisting students enroll efficiently inRead MoreThe University Of District Of Columbia Community College Essay1414 Words   |  6 PagesCommunity Colleges were developed with the purpose of providing an affordable and accessible education. By providing students with both academic and learning skills, community colleges continue to remain an essential part of today’s society. Throughout the years, community colleges have continued to develop and transform to provide resources to meet the needs of their students. As new community colleges began to develop, it is critical that they are aware of the political issues that communityRead MoreCollege Free Tuition Should Not Be Free971 Words   |  4 PagesCollege Free Tuition Education is one of the best ways to succeed; however not everyone has access to it and not everyone has the opportunity to have a degree. After high school a lot of students drop out because the college tuitions are too expensive; they can’t afford them. A couple weeks ago, president Obama came with a proposition in which to make community college free for students because more jobs will require a degree in the future. The program will concern the students who are serious.

Desdemona’s Handkerchief in Othello Essay - 891 Words

In Shakespeare’s play Othello, one of the main character’s Desdemona possesses the most essential symbol and object in the play, a handkerchief. The handkerchief appears in Act III of the play and is a particularly important part in the plot of the play. It helps weave the entire story together. The handkerchief symbolizes Othello’s love and trust to Desdemona and Desdemona’s marital fidelity to Othello. The first symbol of the handkerchief is Desdemona’s marital fidelity. In the play, Iago gives the only description of the handkerchief when he says to Othello, Have you not sometimes seen a handkerchief / Spotted with strawberries in your wifes hand (III.iii.434-435)? The handkerchief is white with a pattern of strawberries in the†¦show more content†¦Iago sees the handkerchief as a way of finally being able to get to Othello. Iago feels that the handkerchief is a symbol of Desdemona’s faith to Othello. By obtaining this symbol of he r faith, he is able to deploy his plan of revenge against Othello. Othello discovers that the handkerchief is missing and becomes very angry with Desdemona. When Desdemona looses her handkerchief, Othello believes she is unfaithful. Othello sees Cassio with the handkerchief and accepts it as confirmation of Desdemonas infidelity. The handkerchief also represents Othello’s love and trust in Desdemona. Othello has an obsession with the handkerchief because of its history. It carries a significant amount of meaning and is extremely important to him. He tells Desdemona about the history of the handkerchief and how his mother used it to keep his father faithful to her: That handkerchief Did an Egyptian to my mother give. She was a charmer, and could almost read The thoughts of people. She told her, while she kept it, Twould make her amiable and subdue my father Entirely to her love; but if she lost it Or made gift of it, my father’s eye Should hold her loathed, and his spirits should hunt After new fancies. She, dying, gave it me, And bid me, when my fate would have me wived; To give it her. I did so, and take heed on ’t; Make it aShow MoreRelatedOthello s Othello By William Shakespeare848 Words   |  4 Pages Desdemona’s Passivity [In the Shakespeare’s play â€Å"Othello†] Desdemona is a passive character in the Shakespeare play â€Å"Othello†. We can identify this as a fault in Desdemona, in various acts and scenes throughout the play. A critic had stated that â€Å"Desdemona is passive, acted upon rather than acting.† This is a valid statement which is noticeable in Desdemona’s character. When Desdemona argues Cassio’s position that Othello stripped from him. We see from this that she could have actedRead MoreWhos Responsible for Desdemonas Death? Essay1036 Words   |  5 PagesIs Othello responsible for Desdemona’s death? Or is it Iago who planned to get revenge against the Moor? There are many people in the play who are responsible for Desdemona’s death. However, one of the individuals in the play unwittingly helps contribute to her death by being naive. Emilia who is Desdemona’s loyal friend fails to convince Othello that Desdemona is faithful. She is unwittingly responsible for her fr iend’s death because, she never mentions the handkerchief until Desdemona has beenRead MoreThe Significance of the Handkerchief in Othello by Shakespeare566 Words   |  3 Pages The handkerchief is significant to the plot, mainly to Iagos manipulation of Othello and his convincing the latter of Desdemonas infidelity. Moreover, it sheds light over Iago, Desdemona, Othello and Emilias characters, and is thus important to characterisation. The symbolic significance attached to the handkerchief reveals Othellos social background, his treatment of Desdemona and the latters feelings towards her husband. Interestingly, Othello provides two sides of the story of how heRead MoreIs It Possible For A Small Piece Of Cloth?879 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Shakespearean play â€Å"Othello†, it is very possible. There are many factors that lead up to these deaths, but the handkerchief is the most significant. It is the most significant because of all the chaos it causes. Nevertheless, the play depicts a story about Othello and Desdemona, a couple that deems unacceptable in Iago’s eyes. Thus, Iago devises a plan in order to ruin their marriage. His plan includes stealing the handkerchief that was given to Desdemona from Othello. At this point it is clearRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello Essay1230 Words   |  5 Pages Previously, in Act 3.4, Othello begins to suspect Desdemona’s loyalty, as he continuously asks Desdemona for the handkerchief, yet she keeps on changing the topic. In Act 4.1, Iago continues to convince Othello of Desdemona’s faithful ness. In Act 3.4, Othello defended Desdemona when Iago accused her; but in Act 4.1, their position is switched. Othello becomes more aware of what Iago is saying and the anger that he has towards Iago has significantly reduced, while he begins to doubt Desdemona.Read MoreOthello Character Analysis905 Words   |  4 Pages1. Throughout the drama, â€Å"The Tragedy of Othello†, Iago successfully manipulates Cassio various times. In the writing, Shakespeare creates Iago’s plan to demote Cassio from being Othello’s lieutenant, the role Iago dreamt of, by tricking Cassio to get drunk so that he will raise chaos and result in Cassio being demoted. This worked out for Iago when Cassio accepts Iago’s encouraging words and began to drink heavily, this would result in Cassio ultimately fighting and stabbing Montano in a drunkenRead MoreThe Handkerchief Of Shakespeare s Othello1730 Words   |  7 PagesHandkerchief Destruction Destruction caused by a single piece of cloth seems like a very farfetched idea. In William Shakespeare’s play Othello, he shows how a single handkerchief can cause mass devastation, and he shows how it can ruin many lives. The background of the handkerchief is what makes the handkerchief so important to Othello. The handkerchief was a family heirloom, and was handed down to him by his mother. The handkerchief is passed around to majority of the characters, and those whoRead MoreTo What Extent Is Desdemona Presented as a Tragic Victim in Othello?1489 Words   |  6 PagesTo what extent is Desdemona presented as a tragic victim in the play ‘Othello’? Desdemona, the daughter of Venetian senator Brabantio, is captivated by Othello’s fables of bravery as a warrior and she falls in love with him. In view of the fact that Desdemona is a â€Å"fair† woman and Othello is â€Å"an old black ram†, commonly referred to as ‘the Moor’, their marriage indicates that her fate might be tragic. In ‘Othello’, Desdemona is portrayed as a courageous young woman whose character is used againstRead MoreOthello, The Moor Of Venice Essay860 Words   |  4 Pagesthat the hero possesses. In Shakespeare’s tragedy Othello, the Moor of Venice (rpt. In Thomas R. Arp and Greg Johnson, Perrine’s Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense, 10th ed. [Boston: Wadsworth, 2009], 1273-1366), there are several contributing factors in the tragic outcome of the play. Iago, the primary antagonist, targets Othello in various ways to obtain revenge and this contributes to the demise of beloved characters. Althoug h Iago and Othello contribute heavily to the final result of the tragedy:Read MoreTragedy is mostly seen in characters pure and innocent. The deaths of those whom are innocent have800 Words   |  4 Pagesdeserve their unfortunate fates. Desdemona is the heart of Iago’s plan and her loyalty to Othello eventually leads to her death bed. Emilia’s husband is the villain she hates, but giving him the one item he needs dooms everyone. Othello falls into Iago’s plan as soon as his fatal flaw of jealousy comes into play. In the tragic play Othello, by William Shakespeare, the innocent characters Desdemona, Emilia, and Othello are lead to their demise because they are manipulated into trusting Iago. Desdemona